|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Kivu conflict is an armed conflict between the military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) and the Hutu Power group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR). The United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo also became involved in the conflict. Until March 2009, the main combatant group against the FARDC was the rebel Tutsi forces formerly under the command of Laurent Nkunda (National Congress for the Defence of the People, CNDP).
CNDP is sympathetic to the Banyamulenge in Eastern Congo, an ethnic Tutsi group, and to the Tutsi-dominated government of Rwanda. It was opposed by the FDLR, by the DRC's army, and by United Nations forces.
Contents |
Laurent Nkunda was an officer in the rebel Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), Goma faction, in the Second Congo War (1998–2002). In 2003, with the official end of that war, Nkunda joined the new integrated national army of the transitional government as a colonel and was promoted to general in 2004. He soon rejected the authority of the government and retreated with some of RCD-Goma troops to the Masisi forests in Nord Kivu.[4]
The organization Global Witness says that Western companies sourcing minerals are buying them from traders who finance rebel and government troops. Minerals, such as cassiterite, gold or coltan, which is used for electronic equipment and cell phones, are an important export for the Congo. A UN resolution states that anyone supporting illegal Congolese armed groups through illicit trade of natural resources should be subjected to sanctions including travel restrictions and an assets freeze.[5]
Later in 2004, Nkunda's forces began clashing with the DRC army in Sud-Kivu and by May 2004, occupied Bukavu where he was accused of committing war crimes.[6] Nkunda claimed he was attempting to prevent genocide against the Banyamulenge, who are ethnic Tutsis resident in the eastern DRC,[7] a claim rejected by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC),[8] and denied the claim that he was following orders from Rwanda. Following UN negotiations which secured the withdrawal of Nkunda's troops from Bukavu back to the Masisi forests, part of his army split, and led by Colonel Jules Mutebusi left for Rwanda.[6] About 150,000 Kinyarwanda-speaking people (Nkunda's own language) were reported to have fled from Sud-Kivu to Nord-Kivu in fear of reprisal attacks by DRC army.[9]
In 2005, Nkunda called for the overthrow of the government due to its corruption and increasing numbers of RCD-Goma soldiers deserted the DRC army to join his forces.[10]
In January 2006, his troops clashed with DRC army forces, also accused of war crimes by the MONUC.[11] Further clashes took place during August 2006 around the town of Sake.[12] MONUC, however, refused to arrest Nkunda after an international arrest warrant was issued against him, stating that: "Mr Laurent Nkunda does not present a threat to the local population, thus we cannot justify any action against him."[13] As late as June 2006, Nkunda became subject to United Nations Security Council restrictions.[14]
During both the first and second rounds of the contested and violent 2006 general election, Nkunda had said that he would respect the results.[15][16][17] On November 25, however, nearly a day before the Supreme Court ruled that Joseph Kabila had won the presidential election's second round, Nkunda's forces undertook a sizable offensive in Sake against the DRC army 11th Brigade,[18] also clashing with MONUC peacekeepers.[19] The attack may not have been related to the election but due to the "killing of a Tutsi civilian who was close to one of the commanders in this group." The UN has called on the DRC government to negotiate with Nkunda and DRC Interior Minister, General Denis Kalume, was sent to eastern DRC to begin negotiations.[20]
On 2006-12-07, RCD-Goma troops attacked DRC army positions in Nord Kivu. With military assistance from MONUC, the DRC army was reported to have regained their positions, with about 150 RCD-Goma forces having been killed. Approximately 12,000 Congolese civilians have fled the DRC to Kisoro District, Uganda.[21] Also on that day, a rocket fired from the DRC to the Kisoro District killed seven people.[22]
In early 2007, the central DRC government attempted to reduce the threat posed by Nkunda by trying to integrate his troops further into the FARDC, the national armed forces, in what was called a 'mixage' process.[23] However, this backfired and it now appears that from about January to August Nkunda controlled five brigades of troops rather than two (see FARDC#Land forces).
On 24 July 2007, the UN peacekeeping head Jean-Marie Guehenno stated, "Mr Nkunda's forces are the single most serious threat to stability in the DR Congo."[24]
In early September, Nkunda's forces had a smaller DRC force under siege in Masisi, and MONUC helicopters were ferrying government soldiers to relieve the town. Scores of men were reported killed, and another major conflict was in progress.[25]
On 5 September 2007, after the government FARDC forces claimed they had used an Mi-24 helicopter gunship to kill 80 of Nkunda's rebels, Nkunda called on the government to return to a peace process. "It's the government side who have broken the peace process," he said. "We are asking the government to get back on the peace process, because it is the real way to resolve the Congolese problem." [26]
In September, Nkunda's men "raided ten secondary schools and four primary schools where they took the children by force in order to make them join their ranks". According to United Nations officials, girls are taken as sex slaves, boys are used as fighters, in violation of international law.[27] Following the date of the UN report, thousands more Congolese fled their homes for displaced persons camps.[28]
The government set a 15 October 2007 deadline for Nkunda's troops to begin disarming. This deadline passed without action and, on 17 October, President Joseph Kabila ordered the military to prepare to disarm Nkunda's forces forcibly. Government forces advanced on the Nkunda stronghold of Kichanga. Thousands of civilians fleeing the fighting between Nkunda and government-allied Mai-Mai around Bunagana arrived in Rutshuru several days later. There were separate reports of government troops engaging units under Nkunda around Bukima, near Bunagana, as well as some refugees fleeing across the border into Uganda. The number of people displaced by the fighting since the beginning of the year was estimated at over 370,000.[29]
In early November 2007, Nkunda's troops captured the town of Nyanzale, about 100 kilometres (62 mi) north of Goma. Three neighboring villages were also reported captured, and the army outpost abandoned.[30] A government offensive in early December resulted in the capture by the 82nd Brigade of the town of Mushake, overlooking a key road (However, Reuters reports a FARDC integrated brigade, the 14th, took the town.[31]). This followed a statement by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo that it would be willing to offer artillery support to the government offensive. In a regional conference held in Addis Ababa, the United States, Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda pledged to support the Congolese government and not support "negative forces", widely seen as code for Nkunda's forces.[32]
Nkunda stated on December 14, 2007 that he was open to peace talks.[33] The government called such talks on December 20 to be held from December 27, 2007 to January 5, 2008.[34] These talks were then postponed to be held from January 6 to January 14, 2008.[35]
Nkunda's group did attend the talks, but walked out on January 10, 2008, after an alleged attempted arrest of one of their members.[36] They later returned to the talks.[37]
The talks' schedule was extended to last until 21 January 2008,[38] and then to 22 January 2008 as an agreement appeared to be within reach.[39] It was further extended to 23 January 2008 over final disagreements regarding war crimes cases.[40] The peace deal was signed on 23 January 2008 and included provisions for an immediate ceasefire, the phased withdrawal of all rebel forces in North Kivu province, the resettlement of thousands of villagers, and immunity for Nkunda's forces.[41]
Neither the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda nor the Rwandan government took part in the talks, a fact which may hurt the stability of the agreement.[42][43]
The agreement encouraged FARDC and the United Nations to remove FDLR forces from Kivu. Dissatisfaction with progress and lack of resettlement of refugees caused the CNDP forces to declare war on the FDLR and hostilities to resume,[44] including civilian atrocities.[45]
On October 26, 2008 Nkunda's rebels seized a major military camp, along with Virunga National Park for use as a base to launch attacks from. This occurred after the peace treaty failed, with the resultant fighting displacing thousands.[46] The park was taken due to its strategic location on a main road leading to the city of Goma. On October 27 riots began around the United Nations compound in Goma, and civilians pelted the building with rocks and threw Molotov cocktails, claiming that the UN forces had done nothing to prevent the rebel advance.[47] The Congolese national army also retreated under pressure from the rebel army in a "major retreat".[47]
Meanwhile, gunships and armoured vehicles of UN peacekeepers (MONUC) were used in an effort to halt the advance of the rebels, who claim to be within 7 miles (11 kilometers) of Goma.[48] Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for DRC Alan Doss explained the necessity of engaging the rebels, stating that "...[the UN] can't allow population centers to be threatened... [the UN] had to engage."[49]
On October 28, rebels and combined government-MONUC troops battled between the Kibumba refugee camp and Rutshuru. Five rockets were fired at a convoy of UN vehicles protecting a road to the territorial capital of Rutshuru, hitting two armoured personnel carriers. The APCs, which contained Indian Army troops, were relatively undamaged, though a Lieutenant Colonel and two other personnel were injured.[50] Rebel forces later captured the town. Meanwhile, civilians continued to riot, at some points pelting retreating Congolese troops with rocks, though UN spokeswoman Sylvie van den Wildenberg stated that the UN has "reinforced [their] presence" in the region.[51]
On October 29 the rebels declared a unilateral ceasefire as they approached Goma, though they still intended to take the city.[52] That same day a French request for an EU reinforcement of 1,500 troops was refused by several countries and appeared unlikely to materialize; however, the UN forces in place stated they would act to prevent takeovers of population centers.[52][53] Throughout the day the streets of the city were filled with refugees and fleeing troops, including their tanks and other military vehicles.[52] There were also reports of looting and commandeering of cars by Congolese troops.[54] That night the UN Security Council unanimously adopted a non-binding resolution which condemned the recent rebel advance and demanded it be halted.[55]
Despite the ceasefire, the situation remains volatile; according to World Vision spokesman Michael Arunga, World Vision workers had to flee to the Rwandan border in order to work, and shots were still being fired. The United States Department of State reported sending Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Jendayi Frazer as an envoy to the region.[56]
On October 30 looting and violence by Congolese soldiers, some of them drunk, continued in Goma, though contingents of other troops and paramilitary police attempted to contain the looting by patrolling the streets in pick-up trucks.[57] Nkunda called for direct talks with the Congolese government,[58] also stating that he would take Goma "if there is no ceasefire, no security and no advance in the peace process."[59]
On October 31 Nkunda declared that he would create a "humanitarian aid corridor", a no-fire zone where displaced persons would be allowed back to their homes, given the consent of the United Nations task force in the Congo. Working with the UN forces around Goma, Nkunda hopes to relocate victims of the recent fighting between his CNDP forces and UN peacekeepers. MONUC spokesman Kevin Kennedy stated that MONUC's forces are stretched thin trying to keep peace within and around the city; recent looting by Congolese soldiers has made it harder to do so as incidents arise both within city limits and outside. According to Anneke Van Woudenberg, a Human Rights Watch researcher, more than 20 people were killed overnight in Goma alone. Meanwhile, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice contacted Rwandan President Paul Kagame to discuss a long-term solution.[60]
Also on October 31 British Foreign Minister David Miliband and French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner flew to the region, with the intention of stopping in Kinhasa, Goma, and possibly Kigali.[61]
On November 6 rebels broke the ceasefire and wrested control of another town in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo in clashes with government forces on the eve of a regional summit on the crisis. National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP) rebels seized control of the centre of Nyanzale, an important army base in Nord-Kivu province after government forces fled. Residents report that rebels have shot dead civilians suspected of supporting pro-government militia.[62]
In November 2008, during the clashes around Goma, a UN source reported that Angolan troops were seen taking part in combat operations alongside government forces. Kinshasa repeatedly denied that foreign troops are on its soil—an assertion echoed by the UN mission, which has 17,000 blue-helmeted peacekeepers on the ground. There is "military cooperation" between Congo and Angola, and that "there are perhaps Angolan (military) instructors in country", according to the UN.
Angola, a former Portuguese colony, sided with Kinshasa in the 1998-2003 Second Congo War that erupted when Democratic Republic of Congo was in a massive rebellion.[63]
On 22 January 2009, the Rwandan military, during a joint operation with the Congolese Army, captured Nkunda as he fled from DR Congo into neighboring Rwanda.[64] Rwandan officials have yet to say if he will be handed over to DR Congo, which has issued an international warrant for his arrest.[64] A military spokesperson said he had been seized after sending three battalions to repel an advance by a joint Congolese-Rwandan force.[65] The force was part of a joint Congolese-Rwandan operation which was launched to hunt Rwandan Hutu militiamen operating in DR Congo.[66] Nkunda is currently being held at an undisclosed location in Rwanda.[67] A Rwandan military spokesman has claimed, however, that Nkunda is being held at Gisenyi, a city in Rubavu district in the Western Province of Rwanda.[68] DR Congo's government suggested his capture would end the activities of one of the country's most feared rebel groups, recently split by a leadership dispute.[69]
With the ending of the joint Rwandan-DROC offensive against Hutu militiamen responsible for the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda, that has decreased the number of the Interahamwe from over 6,000 to less than 1,000 men. The Kivu conflict has therefore effectively been ended.[1] On March 23, 2009, the NCDP signed a peace treaty with the government, in which it agreed to become a political party in exchange for the release of its members.
Over the weekend of 9/10 May 2009, FDLR rebels were blamed for attacks on the villages of Ekingi and Busurungi in Congo's eastern South Kivu province.[62] More than 90 people were killed at Ekingi, including 60 civilians and 30 government troops, and "dozens more" were said to be killed at Busurungi.[62] The FDLR were blamed by the United Nations' Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs; the UN's peacekeeping force, MONUC, and the Congolese Army are investigating the attacks.[62] The FDLR had attacked several other villages in the preceding weeks and clashes occurred between FDLR forces and the Congolese Army, during which government forces are reported to have lost men.[70] The most recent attacks have forced a significant number of people from their homes in Busurungi to Hombo, 20 kilometres (12 mi) north.[70] The Congolese Army and MONUC are planning operations in South Kivu to eliminate the FDLR.[70]
In August 3 Indian soldiers were killed by rebels in a surprise attack.
Rebels of the Mai-Mai militia attacked a MONUSCO base in Rwindi. UN troops killed 8 rebels in the battle[71].